Low temperature silicon wafer bond process with bulk material bond strength

ABSTRACT

The present invention includes a method for bonding one semiconductor surface to a second semiconductor surface. The method includes providing a first article that has a semiconductor surface and a second article that has a semiconductor surface. The semiconductor surfaces are annealed with an energy source wherein energy is confined to the semiconductor surfaces. The annealed surfaces are bonded to each other.

This application is a divisional of U.S. Ser. No. 09/189,276, filed Nov. 10, 1998.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a method for bonding semiconductor articles and to a semiconductor article comprising bonded semiconductor articles.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

An increasing complexity of circuitry fabricated on and within semiconductor wafers has required greater complexity in the vertical structure of semiconductor wafers. For instance, early bipolar semiconductor devices were comprised of only two layers, typically deposited by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). These layers included an epitaxial layer and, for silicon wafers, a silicon dioxide passivation layer. Early metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) devices had only one silicon dioxide layer.

In contrast, more contemporary devices are constructed by utilizing a variety of very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI). The VLSI circuits are used in a solid state architecture divisible into two components—an instruction processor that supervises the order and decoding of instructions to be executed by the circuit and a data processor which performs the operations prescribed by the instructions on data. This complex: circuitry has required multiple levels of circuit interconnects positioned vertically, as well as horizontally, over several wafer layers. The layers are fabricated to perform functions such as conductors, semiconductors or insulators. The layers have been typically formed by deposition, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or physical vapor deposition (PVD). The complex circuitry has been fashioned from the layers utilizing sophisticated photo masking techniques.

One type of layer arrangement which has use in fabricating semiconductor devices, such as VLSI circuits, is a silicon layer positioned on an insulator (SOI) layer. This arrangement has been made by converting a top layer of a silicon wafer with a heavy oxygen implant to form an oxide. An epitaxial layer is grown on top of the oxide.

The SOI arrangement has also been made by bonding silicon wafers to each other. Bonded wafers have been fabricated to a thickness of five microns, with a resistivity in a range of 6 to 8 ohm-cm. The SOI structure permits layers of a semiconductor to be stacked using at least one insulating layer, a layer that bonds the layers together, and conductive interconnects or vertical busses extending through the insulating layer that are made utilizing a polymeric material such as an adhesive.

The annealed, bonded silicon wafers have been used to fabricate devices such as p-I-n diodes, power devices and micro mechanical structures. The annealed, bonded wafers have also been used to replace epitaxy fabrication. The annealed, bonded wafers have a versatility of thickness range which was not present in epitaxy fabrication in structures such as SOI structures.

With silicon wafer bonding and annealing, two flat silicon wafers, which are particle-free, are contacted to each other and bond with each other, chemically and physically. The wafer contact and physical bonding occur at ambient room temperature. The physically bonded wafers are annealed at an elevated temperature in order to increase bond strength by imparting a chemical bond to the wafers.

Q.-Y. Tong et al., in an article entitled “Hydrophobic Silicon Wafer Bonding” in Applied Phys. Lett., 64, No. 5, on Jan. 31, 1994, at pages 625 to 627, quantified the bond strength of wafers which had been bonded to each other at room temperature and annealed at an elevated temperature. Tong et al. showed that the bond strength increased by about two orders of magnitude from room temperature to 1100° C. Tong et al. studied both hydrophilic wafers and hydrophobic wafers and concluded that bonded hydrophobic wafers displayed superior performance, despite hydrogen bubble generation at the interface of the two bonded wafers. Tong et al. found that the bond energy at the wafer interface approached the fracture energy of bulk silicon at 700° C. and higher temperatures.

Gosele et al. in an article, “Self-Propagating Room Temperature Silicon Wafer Bonding in Ultrahigh Vacuum,” in Appl. Phys. Lett. in volume 67, No. 24, of Dec. 11, 1995 at pages 3614 to 3616, described a technique for minimizing the hydrogen bubble generation. Gosele et al. studied wafer bonding under high vacuum conditions. Gosele et al. demonstrated that four inch diameter hydrophobic wafers that were separately annealed at 600° to 800° C. in a vacuum to drive off hydrogen from the silicon surfaces when bonded at room temperature in vacuum achieved a uniform bubble-free bonded surface with a bond interface energy of bulk silicon.

The M. K. Weldon reference, “Physics and Chemistry of Silicon Wafer Bonding Investigated by Infrared Absorption and Spectroscopy,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 14(4), July/August 1996, pp. 3095-3105, described the surface phenomena of annealed silicon wafer surfaces. Wafers considered were hydrophilic wafers and hydrophobic wafers. Weldon et al. observed a shift in Si—H stretching frequency of bonded hydrophobic wafers due to van der Waals attraction. Hydrogen was driven off during annealing at high temperatures and Si—Si bonds were formed between the surfaces of the two annealed wafers.

Hydrophilic wafers had three to five monolayers of water and hydroxyl groups that terminated the silicon oxide layer formation at low temperature. With heating, the water groups dissociated, leading to the formation of additional silicon oxide. The hydroxyl groups subsequently disappeared resulting in the formation of Si—O—Si bridging linkages across the two surfaces of two wafers.

The fabrication technique of silicon wafer bonding and annealing has been confined to early stages of silicon wafer fabrication. In particular, the annealing is performed prior to any circuit or film fabrication. This limitation is necessary because of the high temperature required to anneal the wafers to each other. The annealing temperature range is high enough to damage or destroy elements or films of any integrated circuit that might be positioned on the wafers.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the present invention comprise a method for bonding one semiconductor surface to a second semiconductor surface. The method includes providing an article that has a semiconductor surface. The semiconductor surface of the article is contacted to a second semiconductor surface of a second article. The semiconductor surfaces are annealed with a pulsed energy source that imparts energy which is confined substantially to the semiconductor surfaces of each article and which is of such a short duration that only the semiconductor surfaces to be bonded are raised to the necessary annealing temperatures leaving opposite semiconductor surfaces at a temperature near the ambient temperature. The annealed surfaces are then contacted to each other and bonded to each other.

In another embodiment, the present invention also includes a semiconductor device comprised of two or more bonded semiconductor wafers. The bond of the semiconductor wafers is substantially free of defects. Any high temperature effects are confined to a region near the surfaces of the semiconductor wafers which have been annealed.

In one other embodiment, the present invention additionally includes a first silicon wafer and a second silicon wafer which is annealed and then bonded to the first silicon wafer. The second silicon wafer includes an element which is subject to change at the semiconductor annealing temperature. The element is kept free from any changes due to high temperature exposure as a result of the pulsed annealing method employed.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of two wafers that are annealed to make the semiconductor device of the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of one embodiment of the semiconductor device of the present invention.

FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of the semiconductor device of the present invention.

FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of one other embodiment of the semiconductor device of the present invention, the embodiment including an element changed at an annealing temperature of the semiconductor.

FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the semiconductor mounted for annealing by laser-treatment.

FIG. 6 is a perspective view of the semiconductor mounted for a laser raster scan.

FIG. 7 is a top view of a laser raster scan.

FIG. 8A is a side view of a device for bonding two semiconductor wafers to each other.

FIG. 8B is a side view of the device of FIG. 8A bonding the two semiconductor wafers to each other.

FIG. 9 is a top view of a device for separating bonded wafers.

FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view of bonded wafers with an epitaxial layer.

FIG. 11A is a cross-sectional view of a bonded wafer layer of FIG. 10 with an ion implant wherein the implant is positioned within the layer.

FIG. 11B is a cross-sectional view of a bonded wafer layer of FIG. 10 with an ion implant wherein the implant substantially traverses the layer.

FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of a bonded wafer with a P-N junction.

FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of a bonded wafer that comprises several layers.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In the following detailed description of the invention, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof, and in which is shown, by way of illustration, specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. In the drawings, like numerals describe substantially similar components throughout the several views. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention. Other embodiments may be utilized and structural, logical, and electrical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the invention.

For purposes of this specification, the terms, “chip”, “wafer”, and “substrate” include any structure having an exposed surface of semiconductor material with which to form integrated circuit (IC) structures. These terms are also used to refer to semiconductor structures during processing and may include other layers that have been fabricated thereupon. The terms include doped and undoped semiconductors, epitaxial semiconductor layers supported by a base semiconductor or insulator, as well as other semiconductor structures known in the art. The term “conductor” is understood to include semiconductors, and the term “insulator” is defined to include any material that is less electrically conductive than the materials referred to as “conductors.” The following description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense.

The method of the present invention, for annealing and bonding one silicon wafer, such as is illustrated at 10 in FIG. I to another silicon wafer 12, to form a single bonded silicon wafer, illustrated in a perspective view at 14 in FIG. 2 and in cross-section in FIG. 3, includes providing two silicon wafers 10 and 12, and annealing designated annealing surfaces 16 and 18 of the wafers 10 and 12 with a high intensity, short duration laser pulse in a manner that heats the designated-annealing surfaces 16 and 18 to a temperature of at least about 500° C. within about 20 nanoseconds, while maintaining the remaining wafer mass and opposing non-annealed surfaces 20 and 22 at a temperature that is no greater than about 15 to 25° C. above room temperature. The annealed surfaces 16 and 18 are contacted and bonded to each other.

The present invention also includes a semiconductor device that comprises at least two silicon wafers 10 and 12, annealed and then bonded to each other, wherein at least one of the wafers has an integrated circuit such as is shown at 23 in FIGS. 2 and 3. The bond 24, formed by contacting surfaces of the two wafers 10 and 12 after the surfaces have been annealed, is substantially free of defects.

One embodiment of the semiconductor device, illustrated in cross-section at 30 in FIG. 4, further includes a layer or segment 26 produced by metallization, utilizing a metal such as aluminum, copper or other material such as polysilicon, that is positioned adjacent to silicon 34. In the embodiment, the aluminum or other metal is layered over or within a silicon wafer 36. The aluminum or other metal displays no high temperature effects even though the annealing bond temperature utilized in the method of the present invention would be expected to cause aluminum and silicon to dissolve into each other. The dissolution is expected because a eutectic point for aluminum or other metal and silicon occurs at 450° C.

While aluminum is described, it is believed that other materials that melt or change within a temperature range that corresponds to the annealing temperature of silicon do not melt or change when subjected to the wafer annealing method of the present invention. Other materials include copper, polysilicon, and gold.

The method of the present invention imparts to semiconductor device manufacture, a versatility not heretofore possible. With the method of the present invention, a semiconductor manufacturer can fabricate desired circuits on different wafers and then bond and anneal the wafers together without damaging or negatively impacting the circuits. As a consequence of the method of the present invention, circuit arrays may be mass produced on wafers and then combined with a variety of other, desired arrays on other wafers through the annealing and bonding process. This versatility is a great improvement over the conventional semiconductor fabrication methods which require a manufacturer to either perform the wafer bonding prior to circuit fabrication or to risk the occurrence of undesirable changes in a circuit as a result of exposure by the circuit to the elevated temperature of bonding.

The silicon wafers provided in the method of the present invention are, in one embodiment, circular in shape with a diameter of about four inches. Wafers with other diameters or with other symmetries with other dimensions may also be suitable for use. Silicon constructions other than wafers are also suitable for use in the method of the present invention. It is also contemplated that semiconductor materials other than silicon may be usable in the method of the present invention, such as gallium arsenide or germanium.

The silicon wafers are dipped in a dilute hydrofluoric acid (HF) solution in order to remove any native silicon oxide from the wafer surfaces to be bonded. The surfaces are rendered hydrophobic by replacement of oxygen from the silicon oxide on the wafer surface with hydrogen from the HF.

The wafers with hydrophobic surfaces are then, in one embodiment, initially bonded to each other at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The bonding is performed by contacting the wafers to each other in an environment free of dust or other airborne particles or vapors. The bonding process, illustrated in one embodiment in FIGS. 8A and 8B, employs a spinner apparatus 200 and wafers 202 and 204 positioned on the spinner apparatus 200 by contacts 206 and 208. The wafers 202 and 204 are initially spun under a low intensity infrared lamp 210 at a temperature that is less than approximately 80° C. After spinning, the wafers 202 and 204 are contacted together and pinched by a pinching mechanism 212. This initial bonding is principally due to van der Waals forces.

The bonded wafers are then transferred to an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) chamber which is pumped down to about 3×10⁻⁹ Torr. The bonded wafers are separated into two wafers by a separating mechanism such as is illustrated at 300 in FIG. 9. In one embodiment, the separating mechanism 300 includes three wedges 302, 304 and 306, positionable between the wafers at a rim of each wafer. The separated wafers are observable by a camera transmission from within the vacuum chamber.

In another embodiment, the wafers are stored in an ultra clean environment prior to introduction into the vacuum chamber. These wafers do not undergo an initial bonding step.

The purpose of the wafer bonding is to retain cleanliness of wafer surfaces that are to be annealed. If the cleanliness can be maintained without bonding, then it is not required that the wafers be initially bonded to each other.

Once the wafers 10 and 12 are separated in the vacuum chamber, the wafer surfaces 16 and 18 that had been bonded to each other are exposed to energy from a laser pulse such as is illustrated for wafer surface 16 in FIG. 5. This exposure occurs in the vacuum chamber. Wafer surfaces 16 and 18 are sequentially exposed to energy from laser 38. The laser pulse sequentially elevates the temperature of the surfaces 16 and 18 to a temperature of about 800° C. At this temperature and energy level, hydrogen is driven from the hydrophobic wafer surfaces 16 and 18. The depth of the wafer thickness which is exposed to the laser energy and which is at a temperature of about 800° C. is no more than about 0.25 microns. Energy as manifested by an elevated temperature is substantially confined to the surface of the wafer.

A pulsed energy source such as a pulsed laser is preferred because a laser operating in a pulsed mode can instantaneously heat an area of a wafer without influencing the underlying substrate. In particular, heating with a pulsed laser causes substantially no mechanical damage to the wafer because the thermal relaxation time of the pulsed laser is negligibly small as compared to the reaction time of a mechanical, stress such as thermal expansion.

The pulsed energy source should not be of a magnitude that is so high as to cause the silicon material or other semiconductor material to evaporate. The pulsed energy source must be of a magnitude to elevate the temperature to a range of 500 to 800° C.

In one embodiment of the method of the present invention, the annealing energy is generated by a q-switched ruby laser, producing a wavelength of 0.69 microns. The peak power required is about 10⁸ watts/cm². For a fully illuminated four inch wafer, this energy corresponds to an incident optical pulse energy of approximately 243 joules.

One other type of laser that may be used in the method of the present invention is a frequency doubled Neodymium doped Yittrium Aluminum Garnet (Nd/YAG) laser emitting 0.53 microns wavelength. A laser emitting light within the green spectrum, near the blue spectrum is suitable for use in the present invention. Because the absorption coefficient in silicon increases at shorter wavelengths, a decrease in the required pulse power and energy can be realized by choosing a shorter wavelength laser such as the ruby laser described, or the frequency doubled, Nd/YAG laser, described above.

It is contemplated that energy sources other than pulsed optical energy may be used in the method of the present invention. These other energy sources include pulsed ion beam, pulsed x-ray beam and others. These other energy sources have the similar pulse width and energy as is described for laser beam energy. This annealing energy and laser source is optimal for the hydrophobic wafer surface because under the process conditions, the optical properties of the silicon are such that absorption coupling to the incident radiation is appreciably greater than for example, silicon dioxide. As a consequence, wafer material opposing the laser-treated surfaces 16 or 18 remains relatively cool.

In one other method embodiment, it has been found that by illuminating only a fraction of the wafer, for example 10% of the surface area, at a given time, the required pulse energy of a laser such as a q-switched ruby laser can be reduced by a factor of ten. This operation is performed at the expense of stepping the annealing laser beam 10 to 20 times across the wafer surface. For a 48 mil thick, 4 inch wafer, the temperature rise of the surface opposite the surface illuminated with the full 243 joule pulse is about 15° C.

This method embodiment of illuminating a fraction of a wafer surface area requires that the wafer surface area be capable of being scanned. The wafer 101 is mounted on a stage 100, such as is illustrated in FIG. 6 which is movable in an x-axis and a y-axis in relation to a fixed laser beam 102. With the embodiment shown in FIG. 6, a scanning system 104 is comprised of a laser 106, a multifaceted mirror 108 and focusing optics 110. The beam 102 from the laser 106 is directed toward the multifaceted mirror 108 which rotates clockwise. The beam 102 is reflected toward the wafer 101 through the focusing optics 110. The beam 102 impinges the surface of the wafer 101 and moves laterally across the wafer 101 as shown at 112 in FIG. 7. The mirror 108 rotates in concert with the movement of the wafer 101 which results in the wafer being raster scanned as is shown in FIG. 7. In another embodiment, the wafer 10 is fixed and the laser beam is collimated and reflected by x and y galvanometer-controlled mirrors. The laser beam is focused by lenses such as are shown at 40 and 42 in FIG. 5 to impinge in a raster x and y movement across the wafer 10.

By scanning the surface of the wafer, another efficiency improvement occurs. This improvement is an increase in the area and volume of the annealed and bonded wafer that is usable for circuit support. Conventionally bonded wafers have a disadvantage in that a silicon device layer covers the wafer to within three millimeters of the edge of the wafer substrate. The remaining wafer surfaces and wafer volume is unusable and is wasted. On a 100 millimeter square area wafer, this leads to a loss of approximately 10% of the silicon wafer. Scanning the surface of the wafer with a laser substantially eliminates this wastage.

An evolution of hydrogen gas resulting from driving hydrogen from the hydrophobic surfaces of the wafers increases pressure in the vacuum chamber to about 10⁻⁶ Torr. After the annealing step, the vacuum pressure in the vacuum chamber was decreased to approximately 3×10⁻⁹ Torr. The vacuum is of a magnitude that removes debris from the silicon surface formed during the annealing step.

Laser annealed surfaces 16 and 18 are brought together and pressed in a manner wherein force is concentrated in the center of the wafers 10 and 12 to initiate a contact 26 which chemically bonds the wafers at 24. The contact produces a bonding wave over the designated annealing surface of the wafer. The interface 24 between the two wafers is bonded together by Si—Si bonds. The bond strength is typical of bulk silicon.

Process variables such as laser wavelength, laser output in joules, and vacuum magnitude are adjustable with experimentation in order to optimize the method of the present invention, by experimentation. In particular, wafers made under one set of identified process parameters are tested for bond strength and bond flaws. The tests are destructive tests. In one test, bonded wafers are pulled apart. In another test, bonded wafers are sectioned and are examined for flaws. Once optimal process variables are identified through fabrication and destructive testing, only a small percentage of the bonded wafers formed are checked for compliance.

The bonded wafers produced by the method of the present invention may be fabricated for silicon-on-insulator, SOI, processes. In one embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 10, a bonded wafer 500 is etched, preferentially, to pattern a thin epitaxial layer 502 above a bonded region 505. The epitaxial layer 502 may be used for fabrication of CMOS or high voltage devices. The bonded wafer 500 also includes silicon layers 507 and 509 adjacent to the bonded region 505. The bonded wafer 500 also includes an insulating oxide layer 504 adjacent to the silicon layer 509. In one embodiment, the insulating oxide layer 504 is formed in a silicon substrate by ion implantation 506, as is shown schematically for layer 504 in FIGS. 11A and 11B. Ion implants 506 in FIG. 11A are positioned within the layer 504 while ion implants 506 traverse the layer 504 in FIG. 11B.

The wafer bonding process may be used to produce silicon wafers bonded to germanium to form sensors or fiber optic elements to electronic circuit interfaces. Silicon based circuits may also be integrated with gallium arsenide based circuits or lasers. With this bonding, the non-silicon wafer may be coated with a diffusion barrier such as silicon dioxide or a ceramic or tungsten. Once oxide is stripped from the silicon wafer, the wafer surface is annealed with a laser. The two wafers are clamped together to create a bond. This bonding process embodiment may be used to make a device such as a microminiature, electric-to-fluidic valve.

The method of the present invention produces bonded wafers that are free from an oxide layer formed at the junction of the wafers. The benefit of this bonded wafer product is that it can be used in the manufacture of a device with a NMOS transistor and a PMOS transistor with minimal risk of “latch-up.”

The localized annealing of the method of the present invention permits fabrication of devices with elements that are susceptible to damage at elevated temperatures because the elevated temperatures are restricted to the wafer surfaces. The wafer bonding process of the present invention may be used to bond a p type wafer such as is shown at 450 in FIG. 12, with an n type wafer 452 to form a P-N junction 454. A deep P-N junction can be provided by selecting wafers having substantially the same crystallographic orientation and opposite conductivity types of desired dopant concentrations. The orientations of the two wafers are aligned within approximately one degree.

One other type of SOI device illustrated at 550 in FIG. 13 that can be prepared with the method of the present invention includes several layers 554 and 556 below a top silicon layer 552. These layers 554 and 556 may include silicon nitride, diamond, polycrystalline silicon, a metallic interlayer and others. The top silicon layer 552 is bonded to a silicon wafer 553 at 555.

The bonded wafers may be used to fabricate a single chip with multiple devices integrated within the chip. The bonded wafers permit improved device design for devices such as surface emitting lasers and light emitting diodes. These devices and device features include insulators hardened by radiation for increased radiation tolerance in military and space IC applications.

Although the present invention has been described with reference to preferred embodiments, workers skilled in the art will recognize that changes may be made in form and detail without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A semiconductor device comprising: a first semiconductor wafer and a second semiconductor wafer, each having an annular edge, the second wafer laser treated and bonded annealed to the first semiconductor wafer forming Si—Si bonding, wherein the bond is substantially free of hydrogen or defects; and an integrated circuit element that is adjacent to wafer surface, positioned on or within the annular edge of one of the semiconductor wafers and the Si—Si bond the integrated circuit element comprising one or more of aluminum, copper, polysilicon and gold.
 2. The semiconductor device of claim 1 wherein the semiconductor wafers have a diameter of about 4 inches.
 3. The semiconductor article of claim 1 and further comprising germanium wherein the article is bonded to germanium to form a sensor.
 4. The semiconductor article of claim 1 and further comprising germanium wherein the article is bonded to germanium to form a fiber optic element.
 5. The semiconductor article of claim 1 and further comprising a gallium arsenide circuit integrated with the circuit on the silicon.
 6. The semiconductor article of claim 5 wherein the gallium arsenide comprises a diffusion barrier comprising silicon dioxide, tungsten, or ceramic.
 7. A valve comprising the semiconductor article of claim
 6. 8. The semiconductor article of claim 1 and further comprising a laser circuit integrated with the circuit on the silicon.
 9. A sensor comprising the article of claim
 1. 10. A fiber optic element comprising the article of claim
 1. 11. A light emitting diode comprising the article of claim
 1. 12. A surface emitting laser comprising the article of claim
 1. 13. The article of claim 1 and further comprising an insulator hardened by radiation.
 14. A semiconductor device comprising: a first silicon wafer and a second silicon wafer laser bonded by Si—Si bonds to the first silicon wafer; and a circuit element positioned on or within the second silicon wafer and the Si—Si bond that comprises one or more of aluminum, copper, polysilicon, and gold wherein the aluminum, copper, polysilicon and gold are free of any laser bonding temperature changes and wherein the circuit element is adjacent to silicon.
 15. The semiconductor of claim 14 wherein each of the bonded wafers has a surface that is available for use over its entirety.
 16. A semiconductor article comprising a p-type silicon wafer and an n-type silicon wafer wherein the p-type silicon wafer is laser bonded by Si—Si bonds to the n-type silicon wafer and is substantially free of hydrogen or defects.
 17. The semiconductor article of claim 16 wherein the p-type wafer and the n-type wafer have substantially the same crystallographic structure.
 18. The semiconductor article of claim 16 wherein the orientations of the p-type wafer and the n-type wafer are aligned within approximately one degree.
 19. The semiconductor article of claim 16 and further including a P-N junction.
 20. The semiconductor article of claim 16 wherein the wafers are free from an oxide layer formed at a junction of the wafers.
 21. A NMOS transistor comprising the article of claim
 20. 22. A PMOS transistor comprising the article of claim
 20. 23. A light emitting diode comprising the article of claim
 20. 24. A surface emitting laser comprising the article of claim
 20. 25. The article of claim 16 and further comprising an insulator hardened by radiation.
 26. A device for use in space comprising the article of claim
 25. 